1 Chemistry to Remember 1 --
1.3 Density and Specific Gravity 1 --
1.4 Liquids, Solids, and Gases 3 --
1.4.1 Pressure and Temperature 4 --
1.5 Chemistry Fundamentals 5 --
1.5.3 Periodic Table 6 --
1.5.6 Electrolyte Solutions 11 --
1.5.8 Oxidation: Reduction and Electrolysis 12 --
1.6 Organic Chemistry 13 --
2.2 Regulatory Agencies and Acts 18 --
2.3 Laboratory and Winery Hazards 20 --
2.4 Chemical Hazards 21 --
2.4.1 Toxic Chemicals 21 --
2.4.1.1 Dose, Duration, Frequency, and Routes of Exposure 21 --
2.4.1.2 Classification of Toxins 23 --
2.4.2 Reactive Chemical Hazards 24 --
2.4.3 Chemical Handling and Storage 25 --
2.4.3.1 Ordering and Receiving 27 --
2.4.3.2 Proper Labeling 28 --
2.4.3.3 Proper Storage 29 --
2.4.4 Chemical Waste 31 --
2.4.4.1 Classification 31 --
2.4.4.2 Waste Disposal 32 --
2.4.5 Personal Protection Equipment 35 --
2.4.6 Chemical Accidents and Emergencies 37 --
2.4.6.2 Accidental Inhalation or Ingestion 39 --
2.4.6.4 Gas Cylinder Leaks 41 --
2.5 Physical Hazards 42 --
2.5.1 Physical Hazards Associated with Laboratory Work 42 --
2.5.1.1 Equipment Hazards 42 --
2.5.1.2 Compressed and Liquid Gas Hazards 44 --
2.5.1.3 Vacuum Hazards 45 --
2.5.1.4 Glassware Hazards 46 --
2.5.1.5 Slip, Trip, and Fall Hazards 46 --
2.5.1.6 Ergonomic Hazards 47 --
2.5.2 Physical Hazards in the Cellar 49 --
2.5.3 Damage Control 52 --
3 What's Your Number? 54 --
3.2.1 Setting up a QA Program 56 --
3.2.2 Laboratory Staff 57 --
3.2.3 Analytical Methods 58 --
3.2.3.1 Method Validation 59 --
3.2.3.2 Reagents, Standards, and Controls 64 --
3.2.4 Analytical Techniques 66 --
3.2.4.1 Calculations 66 --
3.2.4.2 Proper Measurement 70 --
3.2.4.3 Sample Quality 77 --
3.2.4.4 Preventative Maintenance 78 --
3.2.6 Inadvertent Error 82 --
4.3 Grape Varieties 87 --
4.4.1.6 Languedoc-Roussillon 93 --
4.4.2.3 Emilia Romagna-Veneto 96 --
4.4.3.1 Rioja-Penedes-Cava 96 --
4.4.4.2 Vinhos Verdes 98 --
4.4.10 New Zealand 102 --
4.4.11 United States 102 --
4.4.11.2 Washington 103 --
4.4.11.4 California 105 --
4.5 Wine Production Overview 105 --
4.5.3 Fermentation 108 --
4.5.5 Blending, Fining, and Stabilization 113 --
4.5.6 Filtration and Bottling 113 --
4.5.7 Sparkling Wine 114 --
4.5.8 Money Matters 117 --
5 Vineyard to Harvest 118 --
5.2.1 Mature Grape Physiology 119 --
5.2.1.1 Organic Acids 119 --
5.2.1.2 Alkaline Metals 120 --
5.2.1.3 Nitrogen Compounds 120 --
5.2.1.4 Phenolic Compounds 120 --
5.2.1.5 Aromatic Substances 121 --
5.2.2 Grape Structure 123 --
5.3.1 Vineyard Sampling 125 --
5.3.2 Sugar Determinations 126 --
5.3.2.1 [degree]Oechsle 129 --
5.3.2.3 [degree]Balling and [degree]Brix 130 --
5.3.3 Glucose and Fructose Determinations 131 --
5.3.3.1 Enzymatic Method 132 --
5.3.3.2 Other Residual Reducing Sugar Methods 133 --
5.3.4 Potential Alcohol (Ethanol) Determinations 134 --
5.3.5 Alcohol (Ethanol) Determinations 137 --
5.3.5.1 Ebulliometry Method 138 --
5.3.5.2 Other Alcohol Determination Methods 140 --
5.3.6 pH and Acidity Determinations 141 --
5.3.6.2 Titratable Acidity 143 --
5.3.7 Potassium, Calcium, and Other Alkaline Metals Determinations 145 --
5.3.8 Total Phenols and Anthocyanin Determinations 146 --
5.4.1 Nitrogen and Amino Acid Determinations 150 --
5.4.2 Insoluble Solids Determinations 151 --
5.4.3 Total, Free, and Bound Sulfur Dioxide Determinations 152 --
5.4.3.1 Forms of Sulfur Dioxide 153 --
5.4.3.2 Maintaining SO[subscript 2] Levels 155 --
5.4.3.3 Aeration-Oxidation Method 157 --
5.4.3.4 Ripper Method 158 --
5.4.3.5 Other Methods 160 --
6 Fermentation x 2 162 --
6.2 Preparation for Fermentation 163 --
6.2.1 Sugar Adjustments 164 --
6.2.2 Acid Adjustments 165 --
6.2.2.1 Acid Additions 165 --
6.2.2.2 Deacidification 166 --
6.3 Baseline Analyses 166 --
6.3.1 Volatile Acidity and Acetic Acid Determinations 167 --
6.3.1.1 Acetic Acid Enzymatic Method 168 --
6.3.1.2 Volatile Acidity Distillation Method 169 --
6.4 Primary Alcohol Fermentation 173 --
6.4.1 Yeast Metabolism 174 --
6.4.2 Cultured Yeast and Inoculation 177 --
6.4.3 Monitoring Fermentation 180 --
6.4.3.1 Soluble Solids (Apparent [degree]Brix) via Hydrometer 181 --
6.4.3.2 Soluble Solids (Apparent [degree]Brix) via Density Meter 186 --
6.4.3.3 Verification of Dryness 187 --
6.5 Secondary Malolactic Fermentation 188 --
6.5.1 Taxonomy and Morphology of Wine Microorganisms 190 --
6.5.1.1 Lactic Acid Bacteria 190 --
6.5.1.3 Spoilage Bacterium 192 --
6.5.1.4 Other Methods of Identification 192 --
6.5.2 Prefermentation Analyses 193 --
6.5.3 Oenococcus oeni Culture Preparation 193 --
6.5.3.1 Culture Buildup 194 --
6.5.4 Monitoring MLF 196 --
6.5.5 L-Malic Acid Determinations 196 --
6.5.5.1 Paper Chromatography 197 --
6.5.5.2 Thin-Layer Chromatography 197 --
6.5.5.3 Capillary Electrophoresis 197 --
6.5.5.4 Enzymatic Method 198 --
6.5.6 Cessation of Fermentation 198 --
7 Maturation Matters 200 --
7.2 Maturation and Aging 201 --
7.2.1 Advantages of Maturation 201 --
7.3 Removal of Substances 202 --
7.4 Storage Containers 203 --
7.4.1.2 Barrel Construction 204 --
7.5 Protecting the Wine 205 --
7.5.1.1 Oxygen and Wine Color 207 --
7.5.1.2 Formation of Acetaldehyde 208 --
7.5.2 Microbial Spoilage 208 --
7.5.2.1 Acetic Acid Bacterial Spoilage 208 --
7.5.2.2 Lactic Acid Bacterial Spoilage 209 --
7.5.2.3 Yeast Spoilage 210 --
7.6 Maintenance of Maturing Wines 212 --
7.6.1 Barrel Storage 213 --
7.6.1.3 Cellar Temperature 214 --
7.7 Organoleptic Evaluation 214 --
7.7.1 Organoleptic Terminology 215 --
7.7.2 Wine Sensory 216 --
7.7.2.1 Flavor Identification 216 --
7.8.1 Bentonite Fining 220 --
7.8.2 Albumen Fining 222 --
7.8.3 Gelatin and Isinglass Fining 222 --
7.8.4 Copper Sulfate Fining 223 --
7.9 Wine Stability 224 --
7.9.2 Cold Conductivity 226 --
7.11.1 Fractional Blending 230 --
8.2.3.1 Cork Quality Control 235 --
8.3 Bottling Lines 238 --
8.4 Preparing Wines for Bottling 239 --
8.4.1 Required Analyses 240 --
8.4.1.1 Sulfur Dioxide 240 --
8.4.1.4 Microbial Growth 242 --
8.4.1.5 Carbon Dioxide 242 --
8.4.1.6 Oxygen and Wine Temperature 243 --
8.4.1.7 Wine Density 243 --
8.5 Prebottling Activities 244 --
8.5.1 Bottling Line Sanitation 244 --
8.5.2 Membrane Filter Integrity Test 245 --
8.6.1 Bottle Queue 246 --
8.6.2 Membrane Filter 247 --
8.6.4 Corking Machine 248 --
8.6.5 Quality Control 249
8.6.6 Capsules, Wax, Labeling, and Storage 249 --
8.7 Microbiological Monitoring 251 --
8.7.1 Plating Media 251 --
8.7.2 Plate Inoculation, Incubation, and Identification 252 --
8.8 Required Analysis for International Trade 255 --
9 Analytical Procedures 258 --
9.2.1 Spectrometric Color and Phenolic Measurement 259 --
9.2.2 Density Measurement, Direct Method 262 --
9.2.3 Specific Gravity Measurement 263 --
9.2.4 Soluble Solids Measurement via Hydrometer 265 --
9.2.5 Density, Specific Gravity, and [degree]Brix Measurements via Density Meter 267 --
9.2.6 Soluble Solids Measurement via Refractometer 269 --
9.2.7 pH Measurement 271 --
9.2.8 Titratable Acids Assay, Manual 273 --
9.2.9 Titratable Acids and pH Assay via Automated Titration 275 --
9.2.10 Fluoride (F) Assay via ISE 277 --
9.2.11 Ammonia (NH[subscript 3]) Assay via ISE 279 --
9.2.12 Free and Total Sulfur Dioxide (SO[subscript 2]) Assay via Ripper 280 --
9.2.13 Free and Total Sulfur Dioxide (SO[subscript 2]) Assay via Aeration-Oxidation 282 --
9.2.14 Reducing Sugar and Residual Reducing Sugar (RS) Enzymatic Assay 285 --
9.2.15 L-Malic Acid (LMA) Enzymatic Assay 287 --
9.2.16 Acetic Acid (AC) Enzymatic Assay 289 --
9.2.17 Volatile Acidity Assay via Distillation 292 --
9.2.18 Insoluble Solids (% Solids) Measurement 295 --
9.2.19 % v/v Alcohol Measurement via Ebulliometer 296.