1 Early Developments in Stability and Control 1 --
1.1 Inherent Stability and the Early Machines 1 --
1.2 Problem of Control 1 --
1.3 Catching Up to the Wright Brothers 3 --
1.4 Invention of Flap-Type Control Surfaces and Tabs 3 --
1.5 Handles, Wheels, and Pedals 4 --
1.7 Bleriot and Deperdussin Controls 5 --
1.8 Stability and Control of World War I Pursuit Airplanes 6 --
1.9 Contrasting Design Philosophies 7 --
1.10 Frederick Lanchester 9 --
1.11 G. H. Bryan and the Equations of Motion 9 --
1.12 Metacenter, Center of Pressure, Aerodynamic Center, and Neutral Point 11 --
2 Teachers and Texts 13 --
2.1 Stability and Control Educators 13 --
2.2 Modern Stability and Control Teaching Methods 14 --
2.3 Stability and Control Research Institutions 14 --
2.4 Stability and Control Textbooks and Conferences 17 --
3 Flying Qualities Become a Science 19 --
3.1 Warner, Norton, and Allen 19 --
3.2 First Flying Qualities Specification 22 --
3.3 Hartley Soule and Floyd Thompson at Langley 22 --
3.4 Robert Gilruth's Breakthrough 26 --
3.5 S. B. Gates in Britain 29 --
3.6 U.S. Military Services Follow NACA's Lead 30 --
3.7 Civil Airworthiness Requirements 32 --
3.8 World-Wide Flying Qualities Specifications 32 --
3.9 Equivalent System Models and Pilot Rating 33 --
3.10 Counterrevolution 34 --
3.11 Procurement Problems 35 --
3.12 Variable-Stability Airplanes Play a Part 35 --
3.13 Variable-Stability Airplanes as Trainers 36 --
3.14 Future of Variable-Stability Airplanes 37 --
3.16 Two Famous Airplanes 41 --
3.17 Changing Military Missions and Flying Qualities Requirements 43 --
3.18 Long-Lived Stability and Control Myths 44 --
4 Power Effects on Stability and Control 45 --
4.1 Propeller Effects on Stability and Control 45 --
4.2 Direct-Thrust Moments in Pitch 46 --
4.3 Direct-Thrust Moments in Yaw 47 --
4.4 World War II Twin-Engine Bombers 47 --
4.5 Modern Light Twin Airplanes 49 --
4.6 Propeller Slipstream Effects 50 --
4.7 Direct Propeller Forces in Yaw (or at Angle of Attack) 52 --
4.8 Jet and Rocket Effects on Stability and Control 53 --
4.9 Special VTOL Jet Inflow Effects 54 --
5 Managing Control Forces 57 --
5.1 Desirable Control Force Levels 57 --
5.2 Background to Aerodynamically Balanced Control Surfaces 57 --
5.4 Overhang or Leading-Edge Balances 61 --
5.6 Aileron Differential 65 --
5.7 Balancing or Geared Tabs 66 --
5.8 Trailing-Edge Angle and Beveled Controls 66 --
5.9 Corded Controls 68 --
5.10 Spoiler Ailerons 69 --
5.11 Internally Balanced Controls 72 --
5.12 Flying or Servo and Linked Tabs 74 --
5.14 Springy Tabs and Downsprings 77 --
5.15 All-Movable Controls 78 --
5.16 Mechanical Control System Design Details 78 --
5.17 Hydraulic Control Boost 79 --
5.18 Early Hydraulic Boost Problems 80 --
5.19 Irreversible Powered Controls 80 --
5.20 Artificial Feel Systems 81 --
5.22 Remaining Design Problems in Power Control Systems 86 --
5.23 Safety Issues in Fly-by-Wire Control Systems 87 --
5.24 Managing Redundancy in Fly-by-Wire Control Systems 88 --
5.25 Electric and Fly-by-Light Controls 89 --
6 Stability and Control at the Design Stage 90 --
6.1 Layout Principles 90 --
6.2 Estimation from Drawings 92 --
6.3 Estimation from Wind-Tunnel Data 97 --
7 Jets at an Awkward Age 100 --
7.1 Needed Devices Are Not Installed 100 --
7.2 F4D, A4D, and A3D Manual Reversions 100 --
7.3 Partial Power Control 101 --
7.4 Nonelectronic Stability Augmentation 101 --
7.5 Grumman XF10F Jaguar 104 --
7.6 Successful B-52 Compromises 105 --
8 Discovery of Inertial Coupling 109 --
8.1 W. H. Phillips Finds an Anomaly 109 --
8.2 Phillips Inertial Coupling Technical Note 109 --
8.3 First Flight Occurrences 112 --
8.4 The 1956 Wright Field Conference 115 --
8.5 Simplifications and Explications 116 --
8.6 F4D Skyray Experience 118 --
8.7 Later Developments 120 --
8.8 Inertial Coupling and Future General-Aviation Aircraft 120 --
9 Spinning and Recovery 121 --
9.1 Spinning Before 1916 121 --
9.2 Advent of the Free-Spinning Wind Tunnels 121 --
9.3 Systematic Configuration Variations 124 --
9.4 Design for Spin Recovery 124 --
9.5 Changing Spin Recovery Piloting Techniques 126 --
9.6 Role of Rotary Derivatives in Spins 128 --
9.7 Rotary Balances and the Steady Spin 129 --
9.8 Rotary Balances and the Unsteady Spin 130 --
9.9 Parameter Estimation Methods for Spins 131 --
9.10 Case of the Grumman/American AA-1B 131 --
9.11 Break with the Past 133 --
9.12 Effects of Wing Design on Spin Entry and Recovery 134 --
9.13 Drop and Radio-Controlled Model Testing 136 --
9.14 Remotely Piloted Spin Model Testing 137 --
9.15 Criteria for Departure Resistance 137 --
9.16 Vortex Effects and Self-Induced Wing Rock 141 --
9.17 Bifurcation Theory 142 --
9.18 Departures in Modern Fighters 142 --
10 Tactical Airplane Maneuverability 146 --
10.1 How Fast Should Fighter Airplanes Roll? 146 --
10.2 Air-to-Air Missile-Armed Fighters 148 --
10.3 Control Sensitivity and Overshoots in Rapid Pullups 148 --
10.4 Rapid Rolls to Steep Turns 155 --
10.5 Supermaneuverability, High Angles of Attack 157 --
10.6 Unsteady Aerodynamics in the Supermaneuverability Regime 158 --
10.7 Inverse Problem 160 --
10.8 Thrust-Vector Control for Supermaneuvering 160 --
10.9 Forebody Controls for Supermaneuvering 160 --
10.10 Longitudinal Control for Recovery 161 --
11 High Mach Number Difficulties 162 --
11.1 A Slow Buildup 162 --
11.2 First Dive Pullout Problems 162 --
11.3 P-47 Dives at Wright Field 165 --
11.4 P-51 and P-39 Dive Difficulties 167 --
11.5 Transonic Aerodynamic Testing 168 --
11.6 Invention of the Sweptback Wing 169 --
11.7 Sweptback Wings Are Tamed at Low Speeds 172 --
11.8 Trim Changes Due to Compressibility 175 --
11.9 Transonic Pitchup 176 --
11.10 Supersonic Directional Instability 179 --
11.11 Principal Axis Inclination Instability 181 --
11.12 High-Altitude Stall Buffet 181 --
11.13 Supersonic Altitude Stability 182 --
11.14 Stability and Control of Hypersonic Airplanes 186 --
12 Naval Aircraft Problems 187 --
12.1 Standard Carrier Approaches 187 --
12.2 Aerodynamic and Thrust Considerations 188 --
12.3 Theoretical Studies 189 --
12.4 Direct Lift Control 193 --
12.5 T-45A Goshawk 195 --
12.6 Lockheed S-3A Viking 196 --
13 Ultralight and Human-Powered Airplanes 198 --
13.1 Apparent Mass Effects 198 --
13.2 Commercial and Kit-Built Ultralight Airplanes 199 --
13.3 Gossamer and MIT Human-Powered Aircraft 200 --
13.4 Ultralight Airplane Pitch Stability 202 --
13.5 Turning Human-Powered Ultralight Airplanes 202 --
14 Fuel Slosh, Deep Stall, and More 205 --
14.1 Fuel Shift and Dynamic Fuel Slosh 205 --
14.3 Ground Effect 212 --
14.4 Directional Stability and Control in Ground Rolls 215 --
14.5 Vee- or Butterfly Tails 217 --
14.6 Control Surface Buzz 219 --
14.7 Rudder Lock and Dorsal Fins 220 --
14.8 Flight Vehicle System Identification from Flight Test 224 --
14.9 Lifting Body Stability and Control 229 --
15 Safe Personal Airplanes 231 --
15.1 Guggenheim Safe Airplane Competition 231 --
15.2 Progress after the Guggenheim Competition 231 --
15.3 Early Safe Personal Airplane Designs 233 --
15.4 1948 and 1966 NACA and NASA Test Series 234 --
15.5 Control Friction and Apparent Spiral Instability 235 --
15.6 Wing Levelers 237 --
15.7 Role of Displays 237 --
15.8 Inappropriate Stability Augmentation 240 --
15.9 Unusual Aerodynamic Arrangements 240 --
15.10 Blind-Flying Demands on Stability and Control 241 --
15.11 Single-Pilot IFR Operation 242 --
15.12 Prospects for Safe Personal Airplanes 243 --
16 Stability and Control Issues with Variable Sweep 244 --
16.1 First Variable-Sweep Wings - Rotation and Translation 244 --
16.2 Rotation-Only Breakthrough 244 --
16.3 F-111 Aardvark, or TFX 245 --
16.6 Oblique or Skewed Wing 247 --
16.7 Other Variable-Sweep Projects 251 --
17 Modern Canard Configurations 252 --
17.1 Burt Rutan and the Modern Canard Airplane 252 --
17.2 Canard Configuration Stall Characteristics 252 --
17.3 Directional Stability and Control of Canard Airplanes 253 --
17.4 Penalty of Wing Sweepback on Low Subsonic Airplanes 253 --
17.5 Canard Airplane Spin Recovery 254 --
17.6 Other Canard Drawbacks 255 --
17.7 Pusher Propeller Problems 257 --
17.8 Special Case of the Voyager 257 --
17.9 Modern Canard Tactical Airplanes 257 --
18 Evolution of the Equations of Motion 258 --
18.1 Euler and Hamilton 258 --
18.2 Linearization 262 --
18.3 Early Numerical Work 263 --
18.4 Glauert's and Later Nondimensional Forms 264 --
18.5 Rotary Derivatives 266 --
18.6 Stability Boundaries 267 --
18.7 Wind, Body, Stability, and Principal Axes 267 --
18.8 Laplace Transforms, Frequency Response, and Root Locus 270 --
18.9 Modes of Airplane Motion 271 --
18.10 Time Vector Analysis 274 --
18.11 Vector, Dyadic, Matrix, and Tensor Forms 274 --
18.12 Atmospheric Models 277 --
18.13 Integration Methods and Closed Forms 280 --
18.14 Steady-State Solutions 281 --
18.15 Equations of Motion Extension to Suborbital Flight 282 --
18.16 Suborbital Flight Mechanics 284 --
18.17 Additional Special Forms of the Equations of Motion 284 --
19 Elastic Airplane 286 --
19.1 Aeroelasticity and Stability and Control 286 --
19.2 Wing Torsional Divergence 287 --
19.3 Semirigid Approach to Wing Torsional Divergence 287 --
19.4 Effect of Wing Sweep on Torsional Divergence 288 --
19.5 Aileron-Reversal Theories 289 --
19.6 Aileron-Reversal Flight Experiences 290 --
19.7 Spoiler Ailerons Reduce Wing Twisting in Rolls 291 --
19.8 Aeroelastic Effects on Static Longitudinal Stability 291 --
19.9 Stabilizer Twist and Speed Stability 295 --
19.10 Dihedral Effect of a Flexible Wing 295 --
19.11 Finite-Element or Panel Methods in Quasi-Static Aeroelasticity 296 --
19.12 Aeroelastically Corrected Stability Derivatives 298 --
19.13 Mean and Structural Axes 299 --
19.14 Normal Mode Analysis 299 --
19.15 Quasi-Rigid Equations 300 --
19.16 Control System Coupling with Elastic Modes 300 --
19.17 Reduced-Order Elastic Airplane Models 302 --
19.18 Second-Order Elastic Airplane Models 302 --
20 Stability Augmentation 303 --
20.1 Essence of Stability Augmentation 303 --
20.2 Automatic Pilots in History 304 --
20.3 Systems Concept 304 --
20.4 Frequency Methods of Analysis 304 --
20.5 Early Experiments in Stability Augmentation 305 --
20.6 Root Locus Methods of Analysis 308 --
20.7 Transfer-Function Numerators 310 --
20.8 Transfer-Function Dipoles 310 --
20.9 Command Augmentation Systems 310 --
20.10 Superaugmentation, or Augmentation for Unstable Airplanes 312 --
20.11 Propulsion-Controlled Aircraft 314 --
20.12 Advent of Digital Stability Augmentation 316 --
20.13 Practical Problems with Digital Systems 316 --
20.14 Tine Domain and Linear Quadratic Optimization 316 --
20.15 Linear Quadratic Gaussian Controllers 317 --
20.16 Failed Applications of Optimal Control 319 --
20.17 Robust Controllers, Adaptive Systems 320 --
20.18 Robust Controllers, Singular Value Analysis 321 --
20.19 Decoupled Controls 321 --
20.20 Integrated Thrust Modulation and Vectoring 322 --
21 Flying Qualities Research Moves with the Times 324 --
21.1 Empirical Approaches to Pilot-Induced Oscillations 324 --
21.2 Compensatory Operation and Model Categories 326 --
21.3 Crossover Model 327 --
21.4 Pilot Equalization for the Crossover Model 327 --
21.5 Algorithmic (Linear Optimal Control) Model 327 --
21.6 Crossover Model and Pilot-Induced Oscillations 328 --
21.7 Gibson Approach 330 --
21.8 Neal-Smith Approach 330 --
21.9 Bandwidth-Phase Delay Criteria 331 --
21.10 Landing Approach and Turn Studies 332 --
21.11 Implications for Modern Transport Airplanes 333 --
22 Challenge of Stealth Aerodynamics 335 --
22.1 Faceted Airframe Issues 335 --
22.2 Parallel-Line Planform Issues 337 --
22.3 Shielded Vertical Tails and Leading-Edge Flaps 338 --
22.4 Fighters Without Vertical Tails 340 --
23 Very Large Aircraft 341 --
23.1 Effect of Higher Wing Loadings 341 --
23.2 Effect of Folding Wings 341 --
23.3 Altitude Response During Landing Approach 342 --
23.4 Longitudinal Dynamics 342 --
23.5 Roll Response of Large Airplanes 343 --
23.6 Large Airplanes with Reduced-Static Longitudinal Stability 343 --
23.7 Large Supersonic Airplanes 343 --
24 Work Still to Be Done 345.
