1 Definitions and predator recognition --
1.2 Predatory sequence 3 --
1.4 Ability of prey to recognize predators 13 --
1.5 Recognition by young animals 15 --
1.6 Relaxed selection 24 --
2 Morphological traits to avoid detection --
2.2 Background matching 35 --
2.3 Concealing shadow 55 --
2.4 Disruptive coloration 59 --
2.5 Apostatic selection 61 --
3 Behavioral mechanisms to avoid detection --
3.2 Nest site selection in birds 68 --
3.3 Behavior reducing the probability of predators detecting nests 84 --
3.5 Reduced activity 94 --
3.6 Changes in foraging under risk of predation 100 --
3.7 Changes in reproduction under risk of predation 110 --
4 Vigilance and group size --
4.2 Measures of vigilance 116 --
4.3 Benefits of individual vigilance 118 --
4.4 Costs of individual vigilance 122 --
4.5 Effects of group size on vigilance 123 --
4.6 Why don't individuals cheat? 136 --
4.7 Vigilance in mixed-species groups 143 --
5 Factors affecting vigilance --
5.2 Distance from conspecifics and perceived group size 152 --
5.3 Position in the group 156 --
5.5 Influence of cover 162 --
5.6 Age and parity 166 --
5.7 Sex differences and dominance 170 --
5.8 Miscellaneous factors 172 --
5.9 Predator abundance 174 --
5.10 Interspecific differences in vigilance 176 --
6 Conspecific warning signals --
6.2 Acoustic constraints on alarm calls 183 --
6.3 Costs of warning signals 187 --
6.4 Benefits of warning signals 190 --
6.5 Alarm calls between species 201 --
6.6 Variation in alarm calls 205 --
6.7 Development of conspecific warning signals 215 --
6.8 Use of warning signals in deception 219 --
7 Signals of unprofitability --
7.2 Evolution of aposematism 227 --
7.3 Mechanisms by which predators select prey 230 --
7.4 Aposematism in birds 235 --
7.5 Aposematism in mammals 242 --
7.6 Pursuit deterrence 244 --
8 Antipredator benefits of grouping --
8.2 Dilution effect 267 --
8.3 Trafalgar effect 274 --
8.4 Confusion effect 275 --
8.5 Predator "swamping" 280 --
8.6 Miscellaneous mechanisms 285 --
8.7 Position in the group 285 --
8.8 Primate groups 293 --
8.9 Ecocorrelates of antipredator grouping in homeotherms 299 --
9 Morphological and physiological defenses --
9.3 Forms of locomotion 312 --
9.4 Spines and quills 314 --
9.5 Dermal plates and thickened skin 317 --
9.6 Weapons used for feeding 319 --
9.7 Sexually selected weaponry 319 --
9.8 Malodor and unpalatability 324 --
9.9 Venom resistance 327 --
9.10 Life history characteristics 329 --
10.2 Scope of nest defense activities 337 --
10.3 Distraction displays 343 --
10.4 Costs of nest defense 346 --
10.5 Benefits of nest defense 347 --
10.6 Effects of predation risk on nest defense 350 --
10.7 Parent's renesting potential 354 --
10.9 Parental interactions 363 --
10.10 Offspring age 364 --
10.11 Offspring number 368 --
10.12 Offspring condition 371 --
10.13 Parental defense in mammals 375 --
11 Mobbing and group defense --
11.2 Definition of mobbing 383 --
11.3 Variation in mobbing behavior 384 --
11.4 Costs of mobbing 386 --
11.5 Benefits of mobbing 387 --
11.6 Mobbing and group size 395 --
11.7 Mobbing and mixed-species associations in birds 398 --
11.8 Group defense in mammals 404 --
12 Flight and behaviors of last resort --
12.2 Freezing and immobility 414 --
12.3 Defense calls and flash coloration 415 --
12.4 Counterattack 417 --
12.5 Methods of escape 418 --
12.6 Flight distance 423 --
12.7 Flight and weight gain in birds 426 --
12.8 Autotomy and deflection of attack 431 --
12.10 Death feigning 438 --
13 Framing questions about antipredator defenses --
13.2 Synergism between morphology and behavior 445 --
13.3 Defenses shown by different prey to different predators 447 --
13.4 Prey employ different defenses against different predators 447 --
13.5 Different prey use different defenses against the same predator 450 --
13.6 Prey summon several defenses against the same predator 453 --
13.7 Predator-prey coevolution 456 --
13.8 Ten pressing questions 458 --
13.9 Why are defenses imperfect? 463 --
Appendix Scientific names of vertebrates mentioned in the text 467.